Overview Weaknesses And Strengths Of Globalization Economics Essay

Globalization can be defined in a assortment of ways since it is a really of import term as it influences the planetary economic systems. It can be defined as the motion toward communications, fiscal, economic, and trade integrating. Globalization entails opening out beyond chauvinistic and local positions to a wider mentality of an interdependent and interrelated universe through free transportation of goods, services, and capital over national frontiers. Globalization is a term that is often employed to put a tendency in the way of increased flow of thoughts, money, goods, and services across national boundary lines and the attendant consolidation of the planetary economic system ( Waters 2001, pg.36 ) . Globalization is closely related to international trade which can be defined as the exchange of goods, services, and capital across districts or national boundary line. The addition in the international trade enhances the continuation of globalisation. If there were no international trade, so seemingly states would non acquire entree to the assortment of goods and services produced in different states of the universe ( World Bank 2008, pg.56 ) . It has been found that globalisation does non affect unhampered labour motion, and as intimated by some economic experts, globalisation may ache fragile or smaller economic systems if practiced randomly. Globalization is by and large recognized as being goaded by a combination of technological, political, economic, biological and socio-cultural factors. From some other position, globalisation can mention to the transnational circulation of linguistic communications, popular civilization, or thoughts by socialization ( Tomlinson 1999, pg. 123 ) . This paper will supply an outstanding analysis of the failings and strengths the term globalisation. Strengths of globalisation Supporters of globalisation contend that globalisation can perchance break the universe economically by work outing many jobs which are deep-rooted for illustration poorness and unemployment. Harmonizing to the economic theory, increased globalisation will take down the pay of unskilled labour in developed states and raise the pay of unskilled labour within the developing states as the two groups start to merchandise with each other. Globalization generates resources and encourages the transportation of thoughts that can be utilized for both single and community betterment. Among many other things, globalisation makes rural economic variegation and agricultural productiveness additions more accomplishable. Globalization besides makes environmental stewardship, improved conditions of life, and nutrient security more come-at-able. Due to globalisation, the fringy can now acquire the chance to exhibit themselves in the universe market ( Bauman 1998, pg.121 ) . Globalization encourages the industrialised states to supply important market topographic points for exports of hapless persons within hapless states. The planetary agricultural and nutrient companies can help the 3rd universe states incorporate required safety, and quality patterns by acquiring entree to markets in developed states. Since globalisation means de-localization of assorted endeavors within the word, many people can acquire entree to many industries and in due class globalisation promotes economic growing in the planetary universe, brings about competition among companies, enables manufacturers and retail merchants to cut down the monetary values of assorted trade goods so that consumers can afford them and hence increases the demand on the trade goods. Because of the increased efficiency, the public assistance is raised by offering more low-cost goods and services such that the buying power is increased. Globalization reallocates capital and labour to more efficient and effectual lines of production. Globalization helps hapless states by extracts of engineering and foreign capital which enhances economic development. The economic development due to globalization brings modern ways of linking people, from roads to electricity to telecommunications. The planetary companies offer developing to employees and supply clip, money and endowment that helps them to turn to demands of the community, raising communal and single aspirations and supplying ways for carry throughing them. Since globalisation brings about spreading of prosperity, it enables assorted states to possess conditions in which regard for human right and democracy can boom ( Appadurai 1996, pg.65 ) . Globalization encourages the being of foreign direct investing. The foreign direct investing is a cardinal portion of an effectual and unfastened international economic system and it acts as a head means to development. States in passage, developing states and emerging economic systems have realized that foreign direct investing is the beginning of modernisation and economic development, employment and income growing. Many states have freed up their foreign direct investing governments and acted on other policies in order to pull investing. Foreign direct investing enhances a main beginning of capital that is accompanied with up-to-date engineering. It has been found that to bring forth this capital by domestic agencies is a hard undertaking, and even if there is a possibility to bring forth it locally, importing the indispensable engineering from abroad would still be a hard undertaking. This is because, the transportation of engineering to companies without anterior experience of how to utilize it, is expensive, hard, and hazard. Foreign direct investing signifiers many outwardnesss over along period of clip in the signifier of benefits bing to the full economic system. These comprise of upgrading the telecommunication services, constitution of trading and finance related webs, creative activity of modern accounting and direction methods, industrial upgrading, work experience necessary for labour force, and specific engineerings and general cognition in production and distribution. The foreign direct investing in services has a great influence on the fight of the host state as it raises the productiveness of capital hence enabling the host state to pull new capital on promoting footings. Foreign direct investing brings about the being of services that can be utilized as strategic inputs within the traditional export sector so that to spread out the volume of trade every bit good as to upgrade production through procedure and merchandise invention. Foreign direct investing finds its application in the economically underdeveloped states. For the 90s decennary, foreign direct investing was among the main external beginnings of support for many states that were sing growing in the economic position. Foreign direct investing has aided many states during the clip of economic adversities. For case, in some states of East Asia, it was seen that during the financial jobs of 1997 to 1998 the sum of foreign direct investing that was made in these states was moderately steady. Foreign direct investing promotes the creative activity of new employment chances in a given state, and it enhances the addition of wages for the workers. Due to this, many people have led better life styles and have obtained many important installations in life ( Featherstone et al. 1995, pg.76 ) . The biggest significance of globalisation in the planetary universe is the rise in competition, which has in bend benefited many states worldwide in footings of economic promotion. Competition has a positive influence both on the well being of consumers and on the economic system of a state as a whole. It has been seen that competition long pillows international fight and productiveness of the concern sector and every bit good it enhances economic growing and dynamic markets. Due to globalisation, the whole universe has become merely like a state merely because people are allowed to traverse the national frontiers into foreign states. The progress in engineering has besides encouraged a batch of interaction between different states of the universe. As most of the states in the planetary universe remain in touch with economic promotion in other states, they look for options to catch up with the advanced states therefore conveying about world-wide competition. Consumers have benefited a batch from completion as they obtain goods and service from their retail merchants and manufacturers at competitory monetary values. When the monetary values for goods and services in a given state are higher than those in the foreign states because of deficiency of competition between the markets, the houses well become less competitory and hence suffer within the market place. Competition besides is really of import in advancing efficiency and productiveness. It has been seen that, those companies faced with strong competition are persistently driven to go more productive and more efficient in the production. This is because they are cognizant that their rivals are persistently looking for ways to cut down the costs of production so as to derive a competitory advantage. Owing to the relentless force per unit area, the houses in competition guarantee that efficiency and betterments in productiveness are made so that they can non in their market place or even vaporize wholly. It is the procedure of terrible competition between challengers that drives companies to set more attempt in offering better services, quality goods, and lower monetary values. Competition has positive influence on invention. Innovation is really important to success in today ‘s universe which is engineering driven. Competition brings about force per unit area to different companies, promoting them to present new production techniques for new merchandises. Without the force per unit area, a state ‘s economic system will dawdle behind other states ‘ economic systems as a centre of invention hence losing international fight ( Michael & A ; Porter 1990, pg.120 ) . It has been seen that globalisation has got its strengths on the promotion of universe economic systems. Many states in the universe have experienced the positive effects of globalisation, for case poorness has been reduced to greatest extent, modern and new methods of production have been realized, a good figure of employment chances have been created, and most states have obtained the advanced modern engineering. In malice of all these benefits of globalisation, it has besides been found that globalisation has its ain negative impacts on universe economic systems. Globalization has encouraged spread of diseases, and has brought about loss of cultural individuality. Failings of globalisation Globalization has influenced exigency and spread of assorted infective diseases. This is because people are allowed to traverse the international frontiers and acquire into foreign states. The free motion of people, vectors, trade goods, nutrient, decision-making power, and capital, aboard planetary demographic tendencies, has brought about the incidence infective diseases in the topographic point of finish. The unprecedented velocity and volume of human mobility are the most blazing manifestation in today ‘s epoch of globalisation. The planetary population is seen to turn at an increased rate such that the societal and economic disparities between the hapless and rich states become intense. This has brought about increased figure of migrators as they search for employment chances to break the quality of their lives. Many demographists and political scientists have observed the 21st century as characterized by migrations. Migrant populations comprise the most susceptible group to emerging and reemerging catching diseases and have been seen as the major causal factor in the world-wide spread of such infective diseases such as the multi drug immune TB. The modern manners of transit that enable more merchandises and people to acquire to different topographic point in the universe at faster velocity have besides opened air passages for the motion of disease vectors from one continent to another. For case, mosquitoes can perchance traverse the seas and oceans by siting in the wheel Wellss of an aeroplane. The incidence of West Nile virus in New York City in the twelvemonth 1999 is a really good illustration of the disease that was availed in North America by vectors transported in aeroplane. Beyond this transit of disease vectors, there is grounds that planetary heating is doing the alterations in distribution of disease vectors worldwide and hence increasing the incidence rates of different tropical diseases like dandy fever and malaria. Global heating is caused by adult male ‘s activities like industrialisation which consequences into increased sum of nursery gases in the ambiance. Persons from rich states have invaded hapless and developing states with the purpose of set uping their houses most of which emit nursery gases into the ambiance. Therefore globalisation brings about the possibility of planetary heating in the universe. The demand for planetary nutrient market every bit good as the motion of nutrient from one state to another has besides been important for nutrient borne diseases. Global transit of nutrient has besides raised the concern on the issue of antibiotic opposition in adult male. The animate beings that produce nutrient merchandises like milk and eggs are normally administered with drugs to forestall diseases and increase production. However, these drugs have been found to do bugs to derive opposition against drugs that are used for human disease medicine. Therefore due to societal and economic interaction, incidences of many diseases have been caused ( Giddens 1990, pg.67 ) . Because of globalisation, people from different states throughout the universe have interacted and therefore their civilizations have been intermingled. The effect of different civilization coming together is to lose the cultural individuality. It is true that globalisation has brought about alterations which threaten the application of merchandises that are made locally. For case, the handiness of new foreign goods such as nutrients in market, which might even be cheaper cost wise, have displaced the local framers who from clip and once more have been gaining a life by selling their farm green goods locally. Apart from the increased handiness of foreign-made merchandises and break of local manufacturers, globalisation has besides increased international trade that trades with cultural goods and services, for case music, publication, and films. The other states are faced with troubles in exhibiting their local cultural goods and services that they have put their attempt to bring forth, to the planetary market and therefore are unable to vie with the foreign houses. The natural effect is that the local states are noteworthy to come in those countries of influence that are occupied by multinational houses of developed states. As the trade in cultural goods and services intensifies, most of the local societies get exposed to foreign civilizations. This exposure to foreign cultural merchandises encourages alterations in local traditions, civilizations, and values. No consensus on the effects of globalisation upon national civilizations, a figure of people feel that people ‘s contact with the foreign civilization can weaken their local cultural individuality ( Friedman 1994, pg.123 ) . Most of the civilizations are now utilizing the linguistic communication of the dominant civilizations since the foreign linguistic communications such as English is dispersed really fast through cyberspace and media ( Deng 2005, pg.40 ) . English is used more frequent as compared to local linguistic communications for person to show himself or herself. It is true that in today ‘s universe most people can non be able to make their people by usage of local common people vocals and local literature and hence the cultural individuality of the earlier coevals and that of today ‘s coevals is different wholly. The native vocals, narratives, narratives, and jubilations have been replaced with modern computing machine games that are produced in assorted continents, and hence an single becomes portion of the planetary and general civilization ( Featherstone 1996, pg.76 ) . Decision Globalization is a really of import term that can be defined in a assortment of ways, one of which is, the motion toward communications, fiscal, economic, and trade integrating. Globalization is besides seen to imply opening out beyond chauvinistic and local positions to a wider mentality of an interdependent and interrelated universe through free transportation of goods, services, and capital over national frontiers. It is closely related to international trade which can be defined as the exchange of goods, services, and capital across districts or national boundary line. The addition in the international trade enhances the continuation of globalisation. If there were no international trade, so seemingly states would non acquire entree to the assortment of goods and services produced in different states of the universe. Merely like many other issues, globalisation has got its ain strengths and failing to the planetary universe. It has been seen that globalisation has got its strengths on the promotion of universe economic systems. Many states in the universe have experienced the positive effects of globalisation, for case poorness has been reduced to greatest extent, modern and new methods of production have been realized, a good figure of employment chances have been created, and most states have obtained the advanced modern engineering among many other strengths. In malice of all these benefits of globalisation, it has besides been found that globalisation has its ain negative impacts on universe economic systems. Globalization has encouraged spread of diseases, and has brought about loss of cultural individuality among many other failings.

My favourite book «Pride and prejudice» Jane Austen Essay

I like reading very much. Books are the history and tastes of each era. Some of them hopelessly lost its charm, others – are relevant and are read with interest today. Every writer wanted to write for ages, but could he or no; it turns out in subsequent generations. I can say that I love all kinds of books. I have a lot of them, they are different, some imaginative, other fantastic.  «Pride of woman, beggar and completely free – in its poverty, in its irony, in the strength of her character †¦ Is there something equal to such pride? Prejudice of woman, almost incapable to kick, to believe in the sincerity of men’s feel and stop thinking about it. This novel â€Å"Pride and Prejudice† by Jane Austen. Book, without which there wouldn’t be â€Å"psychological† novel or â€Å"feminist† literature or – simply – â€Å"elite† prose as such!  »  «Pride and Prejudice » is a novel of manners by Jane Austen, firs t published in 1813. The story follows the main character Elizabeth Bennet as she deals with issues of manners, upbringing, morality, education, and marriage in the society of the landed gentry of early 19th-century England. Elizabeth is the second of five daughters of a country gentleman. In the small town of Meryton that in the county of Hertfordshire, comes the sensational news: one of the richest estates in the county Netherfield Park will not be empty : it was rented by rich young man , aristocrat Mr. Bingley . To all of his accomplishments was adding another one, the most significant , truly priceless : Mr. Bingley was a bachelor . And minds of young ladies were darkened and confused by this news for a long time, Mrs. Bennet (mother) in particular. However, Mr. Bingley arrives not alone; he is accompanied by sisters and inseparable friend Mr. Darcy. Bingley is naive, trusting, opened for communication, without snobbery and ready to love everyone. Darcy – completely opposite of him: proud, arrogant, closed, full of exclusiveness of belonging to a select society. Relationship developing between Bingley – Jane and Darcy – Elizabeth is quite appropriate to their nature. Bingley and Jane. They are riddled with clarity and directness, and both are guileless and trustful (which will be the basis on which arises a mutual feeling , then the cause of their separation , and then it will  bring them together again .) Elizabeth and Darcy would be quite different: the attraction – repulsion, sympathy and equally obvious mutual dislike, those  «Pride and Prejudice » that will bring them a lot of suffering and mental anguish, through which they will painfully seek each other approval. Their first meetings immediately designated mutual interest, curiosity. Both are equally outstanding: Elizabeth is very different from other ladies – the acuity of mind, independence and judgments, and Darcy – education, manners, restrained arrogance. Originally, the arrogance of Darcy, his snobbery that underlines his behavior, which are Elizabeth and dislikes, and even reave. Their pride draws them together, but the prejudice of Darcy can only repel Elizabeth. Their rare meetings on the balls and in the living rooms – it’s always a verbal duel. Duel of equal opponents – always courteous, never going beyond the bounds of decency and social conventions. Darcy’s soul encompasses the feeling of love, with which he opposes. But unable to resist, he declared his love Elizabeth. The scene of his explanation is one of the strongest scenes in the novel. His confession mixed with bitterness, declaring love, he says, that he was not supposed to love. Surprising that Darcy gets refusal, moreover, Elizabeth accuses him of wrongful deeds. Reading this book, I wondered what attracted proud aristocrat a country girl? Naturalness, harmony of her soul. Maybe he hasn’t met such good ladies. And Elizabeth overcome her prejudice, when she met Darcy in his estate of Pemberley . There she found a new Darcy, about whom servants spoke like he is the best man in the world. Because of the society, he put on a mask of a proud aristocrat, and only the love to Elizabeth helped him to take it off. This novel belongs to my favorite works. For me, it became a kind of standard. Purity and elegance of style, brightness and liveliness features, understanding of psychic life, personality, clarity of composition, especially the language of each character, all this combination creates an unusually coherent harmonious picture. Reading this amazing novel, I look inside myself and learn  «to read the hearts » and check the sense by mind.

Consensus Decision Making Essay Essay

A decision is a determination of a question or doubt by making a judgment. Decisions are a part of everyday life for normal human beings and can be as insignificant as to where to eat lunch, or as important as whether to pop the marriage question to a longtime girlfriend. Decisions can be made in a variety of ways, but most of the time they are either made individually or in a group setting. Both individual decision making and group decision making have their pros and cons, and can even determine the type of individual a person is. Decision making is not always an easy process, but is a part of life. There are major differences between group decision making and individual decision making. When individuals are in a group, decision making could not only involve one person’s opinion, but everyone’s opinion which could become vital to the final outcome. This could sometimes make it easier for a final decision to be reached, or maybe make it even harder to reach a final decision. Arguments and disagreements can occur in group decision making based on other people’s opinions. Sometimes people try to persuade other individuals to change their decision to the one they want, by giving them their own opinions and making them seem like facts. Group decision making can also be positive because there is more brain power involved which can ultimately lead to a quick and more efficient type of decision making. The other type of decision making is individual decision making. This type of decision is basically based solely on one opinion and one opinion only, which ultimately gets the individual what they want. The individual decision making also comes from one point of view and only from the knowledge from the individual. This could lead to a misunderstanding on how to decide because the individual was presented the information to process and had a hard time understanding on which way to decide. The individual’s knowledge on the topic they are deciding on may be little to none, and could lead to a poor decision. Either way, individual decision making and group decision making both have their major differences, positives, and negatives. All of the activities in class and the film â€Å"12 Angry Men,† give us individuals some perspective into decision making and also show us the explicit pros and cons. One very interesting and fun assignment we had to  do was the NASA assignment were as individuals we were given 15 choices of important items and had to rank them based on what we thought was important. Then we were put into groups and had to decide which ones were most important barring our opinions. Many people had conflicting views on what was important and what was not, and some had not realized how important an item was until they were in a group. It was extremely interesting to see how all of the group members came to decisions on this although conflict had occurred. Another group activity that we did in class was the time capsule activity. This was another strongly opinion based activity but because there were other people in the group there were many items being tossed around. There wasn’t a set list of items to choose from like the NASA activity, so there were unlimited amount of choices and some choices were surprising. Some important items were many of the times overlooked by the people in the group because their opinion came into play, which was just like the NASA activity. There were many disagreements while working in a group setting because some people may have different priorities. The movie â€Å"12 Angry Men† showed us more positives and negatives of individual and group decision making. In the beginning of the movie all but one juror votes individually decide that the man was guilty without any deliberation of the evidence. After discussing each piece of evidence the jury slows takes a turn towards not guilty. Although some were stubborn, the fact that all of the jurors talked out their opinions and had a reasonable doubt had some of the change their decision to not guilty. After much deliberation and conflict, the jury was unanimously deciding that the accused was not guilty after all. This was after almost all of the jurors had decided guilty, which meant that the group decision making was much more successful than the individual decision making. The right decision was made in the end because of the talking and opinions that were thrown around which ultimately had the jurors changing their initial decisions. This movie again showed us the positives and negatives when it comes to decision making. Many believe that group decision making is a much more efficient way of deciding outcomes which is why it is so often used in the United States Government. Examples like the House of Representatives and Congress show how many people deliberate about new decisions. Many new laws are discussed  by these groups of people and then eventually passed to the president. This just exemplifies how people opinions and votes do matter to the government. Of course the judicial branch is the branch the uses group decision making a lot. Jury’s make decisions on crimes by deliberating and talking about evidence and whether there is a reasonable doubt. They reach a verdict together and all have to agree on the same thing. The executive branch also uses group decision making. The president just doesn’t make decisions based on his opinions, he usually consults many people about new changes that he wants to make. The president is only one brain, and if he gets more opinions from other brains he can ultimately decide on whether or not this is going to benefit society as a whole. Individual decision making and group decision making have major differences. Both of them have their positives and negatives which are a part of everyday life, and are prevalent in the government.

Best and Worst Educational Experience Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Best and Worst Educational Experience - Essay Example In fact, it has always been my least favorite subject. Going through school, I often wondered why I needed to do so many English related tasks, and in wondering, I learned to detest the subject without realizing its future benefits. I suppose my dislike for the subject has become greater through the eighteen some years that I have been learning the different components of the English language. It was more like I was learning new things - things that I did not learn at home or in pre-school - like reading, writing, and grammar. It felt good to finally know how to read and write. These were things that once I learned them, I was using them everyday. Not only did I use the knowledge to read a story in reading class or to do a writing assignment, but to maybe read the newspaper and write a note to a friend as well. However, then came junior high school. I believe this was when I began to really dislike English classes. Not only was I faced with the same long, boring grammar assignments that I was exposed to in elementary school, but I also had to start reading long books on topics that didn't really excite me.

Explain Descartes' Method of doubt; what does he hope to accomplish Essay

Explain Descartes' Method of doubt; what does he hope to accomplish from this method; is Descartes a skeptic - Essay Example Using this dreaming hypothesis, Descartes finds a way to doubt the materialistic world’s certainty, which also lays the basis for Descartes’s doubt regarding mathematics. Just like this world could be a deception, there could be an evil genius who could convince Descartes into believing that 2 added to 3 makes 6, which is certainly not true. The prime goal of Descartes is to build a safe foundation for the philosophy. Most of Descartes’s writings belong to the period when the modern science was starting to advance, and Descartes was of the opinion that the scientists had a very subjective idea of how to advance in their urge to create knowledge. Hence, Descartes decided to provide the scientists with a solid starting point that was in essence, an Archimedean fulcrum. Descartes achieved this by introducing a Method of Doubt with which, he could express his doubts regarding the knowledge’s structure in a systematic way. Although Descartes seems like a skeptic, but in reality, he is not one. Skepticism, as explained before, is only a method using which Descartes critically analyzes things and facts so as to reach at a conclusion with a solid rationale for it. An in-depth analysis of Descartes’s philosophy suggests that he has very much played the role of a religious zealot on his time. â€Å"Scepticism is a form of anti realism† (â€Å"Descartes meditation 1†) whereas Descartes used his philosophy to explore realism. In order for one to be characterized as a skeptic, it is imperative that one always remains skeptical about one’s stance on things, whereas Descartes starts analyzing a matter from a skeptical position, only to establish a conclusion at the end. This is not skepticism since it leads to confidence and surety that lacked in the start of the analysis. This essentially means that rather being a skeptic in essence, Descartes made use of skepticism as a means to cr itically analyze things, which is why he is

Explain the scientific method and scientism. What are the criticisms Essay

Explain the scientific method and scientism. What are the criticisms of scientism Are they effectrive - Essay Example Scientism, therefore, involves having the strong perception and belief in sciences and its outcomes. This paper seeks to discuss scientism basing on the critiques of the scientific method. Scientism gets the definition by critiques as a provisional worldview based on the realism of the universe and its significance. Most critiques argue that scientism seeks to derail humanity through questioning the boundaries about nature that science has already created (Black, 2009). This, in an example, means that although there exists many and different species of human in the globe, scientism focuses on their beliefs. It is in this respect, an individual can presume that scientism is focused on restricting human inquiry. Scientism, therefore, does not consider the improvement of live through science but rather question the idea of life itself (Margolis, 2003). Other critiques, moreover, put forward that even science itself cannot critique any aspects of the philosophy of scientism. This develops after one accepts that it is only through science that man gains knowledge. Summarily, these critiques of scientism are effective since they point out how the philosophy of scientism limits human inquiry. This means that when one shares the perspectives of scientism, they cannot have the zeal for further inquiry about

Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Literature review Example The Chinese government has legalised informal financing with the conditions that the money must not be raised from the general public and the maximum rate of interest must not exceed quadruple of the interest charged by formal institutions. Since ROSCAs typically fix the interest through bidding among the potential loan receivers, they exceed the interest limit of the government and are thus considered illegal and operate under cover (Chen, 2003; OECD Publishing,  2005; Li and Hsu, 2009). Informal lending institutions are officially allowed to charge much higher than formal lending institutions, which is why the cost of borrowing from such sources becomes very expensive. Judging by their resources and capabilities, this puts additional financial burden on private businesses. However, most of the loan applications by private businesses to banks and financial institutions get rejected primarily on grounds of absence of a previous credit history, sufficient collaterals and guarantee o f repayment. Thus, whereas formal lending institutions shy away from granting loans to private businesses, the credit crunch created due to non-availability of finance is being increasingly tended to by informal lenders. The article tries to get an insight into the financial system of China and analyses the dynamics of formal and informal financial institutions (Tanaka and Molnar, 2008). Research and Analysis The literature primarily wants to estimate the sizes of formal and informal lending markets, the criteria based on which loans are granted in each of these markets and the propensity of private businesses to borrow from the formal and informal lending institutions. To fulfil its objectives, the authors Kensuke Tanaka and Margit Molnar primarily use data from modified copy of a 2002 survey, conducted on 2500 private enterprises in China by the State Administration for Industry and Commerce, modified by Chinese University of Hong Kong in 2004 (Chinese University of Hong Kong, 200 4). Using the data, the authors have drawn a perspective of the finance industry of China as given below: Business size by sales (million ?) upto 1 1 to 3 3 to 10 10 to 20 20 to 50 more than 50 Businesses with borrowed funds 46% 57% 61% 64% 71% 58% Borrowings from formal lenders 14% 23% 28% 35% 44% 36% Borrowings from informal lenders 20% 18% 15% 12% 10% 8% Informal borrowings in products sector 23% 24% 20% 26% 9% 4% Informal borrowings in services sector 44% 35% 9% 12% 12% 9% The authors find that informal lenders are a significant source of finance for small private businesses, since formal lenders find them the riskiest due to unavailability of past credit history. Moreover, borrowing from informal lenders is more rampant in services sector than the products sector, chiefly because they have less tangible goods to keep as collateral. The authors compare the calculations with the findings of a survey conducted by Central Finance University that stated that the least developed area s of China (which coincidentally host the smallest private businesses) have the highest share of credit from informal lenders (Central Finance University of China, 2005). Next, the authors try to understand the

To develop a policy to address an issue identified in a practice Research Paper

To develop a policy to address an issue identified in a practice setting in nursing - Research Paper Example This is achievable through the establishment of an effective bedside policy that promotes effective hand off in the health care setting. Reporting in this case refers to the transfer of accountability, responsibility, and authority of a patient and their care from one caregiver to another. Bedside reporting, on the other hand, refers to a concept that involves providing a report to the incoming caregiver in the presence of a patient. This report provides a policy that seeks to maximize the benefits bedside report (Athwal, Fields, and Wagnell, 2009). To maximize the benefits of bedside report in the hospital, nurses will be required to adhere to the following policy initiatives. Firstly, immediately on the day of admission, a bedside nurses or any other hospital staff will be required to explain briefly the process to patients and families, as well as invite patients and families to form part of the bedside shift report. In addition, bedside shift nurses will be required to give patients a brochure on the bedside shift report. Secondly, at each shift, nurses must ensure that the shift report takes place at the patient’s bedside. At the same time, nurses will be required to invite patients and families to take part in the shift report. Anderson and Mangino (2006) observed that, in some instances, patients or families might not be privy to certain information or diagnosis. However, bedside shift report is not the right place to discuss bad news. In this regard, nurses will be required to refrain from divulging any sensitive information or diagnosis during bedside shift. Instead, they will be required to follow the procedure set out by the hospital for discussing such sensitive information. Families also tend to complicate matters during bedside shift report (Griffin, 2010). This sometimes makes it difficult for nurses to know

Sears Air Conditioning Units and Installation Research Paper

Sears Air Conditioning Units and Installation - Research Paper Example These carry the brand name of sears and sears also take responsibility for their after sales services. The Sears air conditioning units are available in many different sizes and models. The most attractive are however smaller units which are used in household. The business environment has evolved over the last few decades. There are hundreds of different products for each market need. There are many reasons to this rapid increase in alternatives of products. The concepts of outsourcing have greatly increased the number of competitors. Just a few decades ago it was not very easy to start selling technology intensive products. This was because business could not make heavy investments in research and development. Moreover the cost of selling up manufacturing plants was too high. Outsourcing however has made it very easy for smaller investors to compete in the market. Outsourcing hubs like china can manufacture products at low cost and companies only have to invest in packaging and marketing of these products. Even distribution for products is outsourced. The challenge of selecting an effected target market for the products still remains a challenge. The quality of the products is even irrelevant if the right target market is not selected. The first step in this process is dividing the market into different segments. These segments can be divided on the basis of age, gender, location or income group. In this case however age or genders are irrelevant as the product being sold is air conditioner. The market would therefore be divided on the basis of location and income groups. The location factor is important from a distribution point of view. Only areas where Sear’s stores are available can be relevant market segments. The second basis of segmentation will be on the basis of income groups. There are three generic consumer of air conditioning. The consumer in the very high income group

The aims, methods and achievements of MLK and Malcolm X Essay Example for Free

The aims, methods and achievements of MLK and Malcolm X Essay Compare the aims, methods and achievements of MLK and Malcolm X. Which man do you think was most successful at achieving civil rights for African Americans in the 1960s? I would suggest that Martin Luther king was the more successful man in terms of achieving civil rights for African Americans in the 1960s. While this may seem a choice influenced by public image, I would suggest that there were issues with Malcolm Xs image and methodology that made it unlikely that he would ever be accepted (and thus, respected) by White America. I think that Martin Luther King, while viewed by some blacks with contempt for his relatively moderate attitude, genuinely evaluated the situation in which he was operating and suited his modus operandi to make it as beneficial as possible. As a result of this, I think that Martin Luther King made it easier for himself to achieve his aims of bringing about equality for African-Americans in the 1960s in America. I will, however, examine in greater detail the differences in the methodology of the men later on. Put simply, Martin Luther King aimed to ensure that black people were equal in America in the 1960s. Inequality was made manifest through segregation, whether in the guise of schooling, buses, or whites only benches. This stemmed mostly from Kings childhood and experiences as a young adult, one of which led to him being threatened with a gun for demanding service in a segregated restaurant. Kings aims were not all this simple, however. First, he had to factor in the point that he would need to reach the greatest number of people possible with his message, and make them receptive to it. I would suggest that this was a battle between the fight for civil rights and the dangers of playing Uncle Tom to Washington politicians. While King did liaise with President Kennedy, I would suggest that this was an accomplishment of Kings rather than one of his aims. This is because Kings main objective, I feel, was to influence Washington into passing civil rights laws, and talking with the Kennedy brothers was only a means to this end. Second, King aimed to influence politicians through grassroots movements rather than the dealings of smoke-filled rooms. I think that this can be observed in King choosing to demonstrate the plight of African-Americans through initiatives such as the 1961 freedom rides and the 1963 March on Washington. I would suggest that these activities exhibit essential differences in the aims of King and Malcolm X- that is to say that whilst Xs objectives were dependent on black on white hostility, Kings were rooted in egalitarianism. I would suggest that this made King more accessible, and thus helped his plight through the participation of many moderate blacks and white student activists. Kings methods were ones designed to capture the attention of Kennedy, and later Johnson, but whilst exercising caution and maximising participation. However, I think that King was not so much a true crusader as a brand for the Civil Rights Movement. As the US today is personified by its President, I think that the CRM needed an effective, moderate face that was not too black for White America. I would suggest that this is one of the few instances in which one could justify a comparison between Martin Luther King and current US President Barack Obama. For example, in the instance of the 1963 North Carolina sit-ins organised by the SNCC, King was effectively chosen as the face of the movement, a movement that was in fact initiated by educated students desperate for change. As this movement led to the desegregation of Atlantas schools, one could argue that King was in fact not the true leader of the Civil Rights Movement, but more like Orwells poster of Big Brother: omnipresent; benevol ent- a brand. One method used by King was the use of non-violent protest. Utilised in its earliest form in the Montgomery bus boycotts, I think that non-violent protest was the most effective manner with which black and civil rights activists could champion their cause. This is because non-violent protest did not provide white America with the ammunition to vilify Civil Rights activists (though many tried). This is because non-violent protest raised awareness while making it hard for police to use violence to disperse protesters. Also, I believe that such mass action made it difficult for politicians to ignore the plight of African-American people in the 1960s. While the NAACP may have taken on the Supreme Court through litigation, I think that if they had failed there would be no attention paid to the case. It would have been, I feel, business as usual. But the mass action used in initiatives such as the March on Washington in 1963 made black issues impossible to ignore, and helped black people experience solidarity and ubiquity in their anonymity and numbers. King himself proclaimed: The Negro is shedding his fear, and while this is something King was worried about, I think that this is something that was in fact brought about by King. Black people in America could now see that it was acceptable to feel insulted; angry and bitter about the injustices of slavery. Because of this, I would suggest that Martin Luther King succeeded in his aims as I would suggest it was his methodology of mass action that inspired black people to rise up, and the White House (and people) to sit up and listen. However, there was to be another character with what some today would consider a more direct influence on the position of black people in 1960s America. Malcolm X approached the Civil rights struggle in America in the 1960s in a very different manner to King indeed, and I would suggest that in spite of his iconographic status, he largely failed in his aims. X aimed to rail against the whole idea of demanding Civil Rights, suggesting that black and white men could never be truly equal. X regarded black people as Africans who just happened to be in America, and as such X took up a position described by Cornell as The basic aim to counter white supremacy, better known as Black Power. X advocated violence, and I would suggest that this was to result in a short term failure for X. This is because Xs white rivals, segregationalists and racists, would now find a legitimate excuse to be opposed to black people- violence reminiscent of a modern day terrorist group. I would draw parallels with terrorism because terrorist groups are not evil- they merely seek to advance an aim through violence, and are despised by the majority for it. Malcolm Xs methodology, I feel, caused short-term failure, yet it would be unwise to dismiss his efforts out of hand. In the late 1960s disaffected black youths flocked to Malcolm X because they felt King was playing Uncle Tom (especially following Kings poorly judged discussions with Chicagos Mayor Daley in 1966 that resulted in King appearing naive and ineffectual), and I think that this was the central tenet of Xs early philosophy- that of the angry young man. I think that Xs involvement with the Nation of Islam also helped Xs relations with disenchanted blacks, his rebellious and extremist views being ones that the frustrated and the angry could latch on to. However, I would suggest that the Nation of Islam was poor with regards to black/white relations and thus Malcolm X actually achieved little towards the real accomplishment of black Civil Rights (though I do indeed believe that X inspired a host of activists who may not have otherwise campaigned for them). In addition, I think Xs anti-integrationalist stance would do little to affect any sort of white-dominated legislation for the better. Indeed, X-inspired groups such as the Black Panthers were labelled as dangerous by the US government, particularly due to their McCarthyist-frightening beliefs, but also due to their advocacy of violence and separatism. One could draw parallels to Rastafarianisms call of back to Africa that I think equally alienated White contemporaries, who were- like it or not- the Kennedys; the Mayor Daleys, the Bull Connors- the people in power. I think this central lack of appeal to the white man was what made Malcolm X, in my eyes, largely a failure. I also th ink it regrettable that this appeal needed to have occurred, but it was truly required in this case. The methods used by Malcolm X, I feel, were in reality not so far removed from Kings as hypothesised by some. I would suggest that both King and X had relatively non-violent campaigns. While X advocated black supremacy, he in reality did similar things to King: suggested blacks join voter rolls; participated in sit-ins. Whilst the Black Panthers were inspired by X, I think he was always more of an orator than an activist, and that his easily attacked espousals of violence and his belief in the Doctrine of Yakub (which suggested that an ancient black scientist named Yakub created white men, and slavery was Allahs punishment for this) made him likely to fail in affecting mainstream white society. I would contend that a policy of non-violence was to prove crucial in the 1960s, and that a period of education of white America such as that seen in the cultural expansion of the 1920s Harlem Renaissance was important in the meeting of the target of Civil Rights. To conclude, I would suggest that while both Martin Luther King and Malcolm X had flaws which, ultimately, crippled the growth of the Civil Rights Movement, they both contributed in significantly different ways to the fight for black Civil Rights. While I would contend that the theological and occasionally violence beliefs of Malcolm X made him seem unacceptable to white America, I think that his effective martyrdom resulted in disaffected black youths returning to political activism after they felt shunned by what they perceived to be Uncle Tom behaviours on the part of King. One could, I feel, successfully argue that Xs increased appeal also came from his everyman upbringing in Harlem, and that black youths could not truly identify with a Southern minister. In addition,one could argue that Kings campaign depended on violence as much as Xs. If Kings activists and followers were not viciously suppressed, I doubt that moderate America would have eventually got round to championing their cause, evidenced by the fact that approximately a quarter of participants in the March on Washington 1963 were white. However, I would suggest that Kings populism was to raise a number of black activists and student dissenters that would result in white America being cowed by the influence of millions of African-Americans, and, finally, result in the Civil Rights that black America had been fighting for.

The Darknet And The Future Information Technology Essay

The Darknet And The Future Information Technology Essay People have always copied things. In the past, most items of value were physical objects. Patent law and economies of scale meant that small scale copying of physical objects was usually uneconomic, and large-scale copying (if it infringed) was stoppable using policemen and courts. Today, things of value are increasingly less tangible: often they are just bits and bytes or can be accurately represented as bits and bytes. The widespread deployment of packet-switched networks and the huge advances in computers and codec-technologies has made it feasible (and indeed attractive) to deliver such digital works over the Internet. This presents great opportunities and great challenges. The opportunity is low-cost delivery of personalized, desirable high-quality content. The challenge is that such content can be distributed illegally. Copyright law governs the legality of copying and distribution of such valuable data, but copyright protection is increasingly strained in a world of programmab le computers and high-speed networks. The dramatic rise in the efficiency of the darknet can be traced back to the general technological improvements in these infrastructure areas. At the same time, most attempts to fight the darknet can be viewed as efforts to deprive it of one or more of the infrastructure items. Legal action has traditionally targeted search engines and, to a lesser extent, the distribution network. As we will describe later in the paper, this has been partially successful. The drive for legislation on mandatory watermarking aims to deprive the darknet of rendering devices. We will argue that watermarking approaches are technically flawed and unlikely to have any material impact on the darknet. Finally, most content protection systems are meant to prevent or delay the injection of new objects into the darknet. Based on our first assumption, no such system constitutes an impenetrable barrier, and we will discuss the merits of some popular systems. We see no technical impediments to the darknet becoming increasingly efficient (measured by aggregate library size and available bandwidth). However, the darknet, in all its transport-layer embodiments, is under legal attack. In this paper, we speculate on the technical and legal future of the darknet, concentrating particularly, but not exclusively, on peer-to-peer networks. The rest of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 analyzes different manifestations of the darknet with respect to their robustness to attacks on the infrastructure requirements described above and speculates on the future development of the darknet. Section 3 describes content protection mechanisms, their probable effect on the darknet, and the impact of the darknet upon them. In sections 4 and 5, we speculate on the scenarios in which the darknet will be effective, and how businesses may need to behave to compete effectively with it. 2 The Evolution of the Darknet We classify the different manifestations of the darknet that have come into existence in recent years with respect to the five infrastructure requirements described and analyze weaknesses and points of attack. As a system, the darknet is subject to a variety of attacks. Legal action continues to be the most powerful challenge to the darknet. However, the darknet is also subject to a variety of other common threats (e.g. viruses, spamming) that, in the past, have lead to minor disruptions of the darknet, but could be considerably more damaging. In this section we consider the potential impact of legal developments on the darknet. Most of our analysis focuses on system robustness, rather than on detailed legal questions. We regard legal questions only with respect to their possible effect: the failure of certain nodes or links (vertices and edges of the graph defined above). In this sense, we are investigating a well known problem in distributed systems. 2.1 Early Small-Worlds Networks Prior to the mid 1990s, copying was organized around groups of friends and acquaintances. The copied objects were music on cassette tapes and computer programs. The rendering devices were widely-available tape players and the computers of the time see Fig. 1. Content injection was trivial, since most objects were either not copy protected or, if they were equipped with copy protection mechanisms, the mechanisms were easily defeated. The distribution network was a sneaker net of floppy disks and tapes (storage), which were handed in person between members of a group or were sent by postal mail. The bandwidth of this network albeit small by todays standards was sufficient for the objects of the time. The main limitation of the sneaker net with its mechanical transport layer was latency. It could take days or weeks to obtain a copy of an object. Another serious limitation of these networks was the lack of a sophisticated search engine. There were limited attempts to prosecute individuals who were trying to sell copyrighted objects they had obtained from the darknet (commercial piracy). However, the darknet as a whole was never under significant legal threat. Reasons may have included its limited commercial impact and the protection from legal surveillance afforded by sharing amongst friends. The sizes of object libraries available on such networks are strongly influenced by the interconnections between the networks. For example, schoolchildren may copy content from their family network to their school network and thereby increase the size of the darknet object library available to each. Such networks have been studied extensively and are classified as interconnected small-worlds networks. [24] There are several popular examples of the characteristics of such systems. For example, most people have a social group of a few score of people. Each of these people has a group of friends that partly overlap with their friends friends, and also introduces more people. It is estimated that, on average, each person is connected to every other person in the world by a chain of about six people from which arises the term six degrees of separation. These findings are remarkably broadly applicable (e.g. [20],[3]). The chains are on average so short because certain super-peers have many links. In our example, some people are gregarious and have lots of friends from different social or geographical circles.. We suspect that these findings have implications for sharing on darknets, and we will return to this point when we discuss the darknets of the future later in this paper. The small-worlds darknet continues to exist. However, a number of technological advances have given rise to new forms of the darknet that have superseded the small-worlds for some object types (e.g. audio). 2.2 Central Internet Servers By 1998, a new form of the darknet began to emerge from technological advances in several areas. The internet had become mainstream, and as such its protocols and infrastructure could now be relied upon by anyone seeking to connect users with a centralized service or with each other. The continuing fall in the price of storage together with advances in compression technology had also crossed the threshold at which storing large numbers of audio files was no longer an obstacle to mainstream users. Additionally, the power of computers had crossed the point at which they could be used as rendering devices for multimedia content. Finally, CD ripping became a trivial method for content injection. The first embodiments of this new darknet were central internet servers with large collections of MP3 audio files. A fundamental change that came with these servers was the use of a new distribution network: The internet displaced the sneaker net at least for audio content. This solved several problems of the old darknet. First, latency was reduced drastically. Secondly, and more importantly, discovery of objects became much easier because of simple and powerful search mechanisms most importantly the general-purpose world-wide-web search engine. The local view of the small world was replaced by a global view of the entire collection accessible by all users. The main characteristic of this form of the darknet was centralized storage and search a simple architecture that mirrored mainstream internet servers. Centralized or quasi-centralized distribution and service networks make sense for legal online commerce. Bandwidth and infrastructure costs tend to be low, and having customers visit a commerce site means the merchant can display adverts, collect profiles, and bill efficiently. Additionally, management, auditing, and accountability are much easier in a centralized model. However, centralized schemes work poorly for illegal object distribution because large, central servers are large single points of failure: If the distributor is breaking the law, it is relatively easy to force him to stop. Early MP3 Web and FTP sites were commonly hosted by universities, corporations, and ISPs. Copyright-holders or their representatives sent cease and desist letters to these web-site operators and web-owners citing copyright infringement and in a few cases followed up with legal action [15]. The threats of legal action were successful attacks on those centralized networks, and MP3 web and FTP sites disappeared from the mainstream shortly after they appeared. 2.3 Peer-to-Peer Networks The realization that centralized networks are not robust to attack (be it legal or technical) has spurred much of the innovation in peer-to-peer networking and file sharing technologies. In this section, we examine architectures that have evolved. Early systems were flawed because critical components remained centralized (Napster) or because of inefficiencies and lack of scalability of the protocol (gnutella) [17]. It should be noted that the problem of object location in a massively distributed, rapidly changing, heterogeneous system was new at the time peer-to-peer systems emerged. Efficient and highly scalable protocols have been proposed since then [9],[23]. 2.3.1. Napster Napster was the service that ignited peer-to-peer file sharing in 1999 [14]. There should be little doubt that a major portion of the massive (for the time) traffic on Napster was of copyrighted objects being transferred in a peer-to-peer model in violation of copyright law. Napster succeeded where central servers had failed by relying on the distributed storage of objects not under the control of Napster. This moved the injection, storage, network distribution, and consumption of objects to users. However, Napster retained a centralized database  [1]  with a searchable index on the file name. The centralized database itself became a legal target [15]. Napster was first enjoined to deny certain queries (e.g. Metallica) and then to police its network for all copyrighted content. As the size of the darknet indexed by Napster shrank, so did the number of users. This illustrates a general characteristic of darknets: there is positive feedback between the size of the object library and aggregate bandwidth and the appeal of the network for its users. 2.3.2. Gnutella The next technology that sparked public interest in peer-to-peer file sharing was Gnutella. In addition to distributed object storage, Gnutella uses a fully distributed database described more fully in [13]. Gnutella does not rely upon any centralized server or service a peer just needs the IP address of one or a few participating peers to (in principle) reach any host on the Gnutella darknet. Second, Gnutella is not really run by anyone: it is an open protocol and anyone can write a Gnutella client application. Finally, Gnutella and its descendants go beyond sharing audio and have substantial non-infringing uses. This changes its legal standing markedly and puts it in a similar category to email. That is, email has substantial non-infringing use, and so email itself is not under legal threat even though it may be used to transfer copyrighted material unlawfully. 2.4 Robustness of Fully Distributed Darknets Fully distributed peer-to-peer systems do not present the single points of failure that led to the demise of central MP3 servers and Napster. It is natural to ask how robust these systems are and what form potential attacks could take. We observe the following weaknesses in Gnutella-like systems: Free riding Lack of anonymity 2.4.1 Free Riding Peer-to-peer systems are often thought of as fully decentralized networks with copies of objects uniformly distributed among the hosts. While this is possible in principle, in practice, it is not the case. Recent measurements of libraries shared by gnutella peers indicate that the majority of content is provided by a tiny fraction of the hosts [1]. In effect, although gnutella appears to be a peer-to-peer network of cooperating hosts, in actual fact it has evolved to effectively be another largely centralized system see Fig. 2. Free riding (i.e. downloading objects without sharing them) by many gnutella users appears to be main cause of this development. Widespread free riding removes much of the power of network dynamics and may reduce a peer-to-peer network into a simple unidirectional distribution system from a small number of sources to a large number of destinations. Of course, if this is the case, then the vulnerabilities that we observed in centralized systems (e.g. FTP-serve rs) are present again. Free riding and the emergence of super-peers have several causes: Peer-to-peer file sharing assumes that a significant fraction of users adhere to the somewhat post-capitalist idea of sacrificing their own resources for the common good of the network. Most free-riders do not seem to adopt this idea. For example, with 56 kbps modems still being the network connection for most users, allowing uploads constitutes a tangible bandwidth sacrifice. One approach is to make collaboration mandatory. For example, Freenet [6] clients are required to contribute some disk space. However, enforcing such requirements without a central infrastructure is difficult. Existing infrastructure is another reason for the existence of super-peers. There are vast differences in the resources available to different types of hosts. For example, a T3 connection provides the combined bandwidth of about one thousand 56 kbps telephone connections. 2.4.2 Lack of Anonymity Users of gnutella who share objects they have stored are not anonymous. Current peer-to-peer networks permit the server endpoints to be determined, and if a peer-client can determine the IP address and affiliation of a peer, then so can a lawyer or government agency. This means that users who share copyrighted objects face some threat of legal action. This appears to be yet another explanation for free riding. There are some possible technological workarounds to the absence of endpoint anonymity. We could imagine anonymizing routers, overseas routers, object fragmentation, or some other means to complicate the effort required by law-enforcement to determine the original source of the copyrighted bits. For example, Freenet tries to hide the identity of the hosts storing any given object by means of a variety of heuristics, including routing the object through intermediate hosts and providing mechanisms for easy migration of objects to other hosts. Similarly, Mnemosyne [10] tries to organize object storage, such that individual hosts may not know what objects are stored on them. It is conjectured in [10] that this may amount to common-carrier status for the host. A detailed analysis of the legal or technical robustness of these systems is beyond the scope of this paper. 2.4.3 Attacks In light of these weaknesses, attacks on gnutella-style darknets focus on their object storage and search infrastructures. Because of the prevalence of super-peers, the gnutella darknet depends on a relatively small set of powerful hosts, and these hosts are promising targets for attackers. Darknet hosts owned by corporations are typically easily removed. Often, these hosts are set up by individual employees without the knowledge of corporate management. Generally corporations respect intellectual property laws. This together with their reluctance to become targets of lawsuits, and their centralized network of hierarchical management makes it relatively easy to remove darknet hosts in the corporate domain. While the structures at universities are typically less hierarchical and strict than those of corporations, ultimately, similar rules apply. If the .com and .edu T1 and T3 lines were pulled from under a darknet, the usefulness of the network would suffer drastically. This would leave DSL, ISDN, and cable-modem users as the high-bandwidth servers of objects. We believe limiting hosts to this class would present a far less effective piracy network today from the perspective of acquisition because of the relative rarity of high-bandwidth consumer connections, and hence users would abandon this darknet. However, consumer broadband is becoming more popular, so in the long run it is probable that there will be adequate consumer bandwidth to support an effective consumer darknet. The obvious next legal escalation is to bring direct or indirect (through the affiliation) challenges against users who share large libraries of copyrighted material. This is already happening and the legal threats or actions appear to be successful [7]. This requires the collaboration of ISPs in identifying their customers, which appears to be forthcoming due to requirements that the carrier must take to avoid liability  [2]  and, in some cases, because of corporate ties between ISPs and content providers. Once again, free riding makes this attack strategy far more tractable. It is hard to predict further legal escalation, but we note that the DMCA (digital millennium copyright act) is a far-reaching (although not fully tested) example of a law that is potentially quite powerful. We believe it probable that there will be a few more rounds of technical innovations to sidestep existing laws, followed by new laws, or new interpretations of old laws, in the next few years. 2.4.4 Conclusions All attacks we have identified exploit the lack of endpoint anonymity and are aided by the effects of free riding. We have seen effective legal measures on all peer-to-peer technologies that are used to provide effectively global access to copyrighted material. Centralized web servers were effectively closed down. Napster was effectively closed down. Gnutella and Kazaa are under threat because of free rider weaknesses and lack of endpoint anonymity. Lack of endpoint anonymity is a direct result of the globally accessible global object database, and it is the existence of the global database that most distinguishes the newer darknets from the earlier small worlds. At this point, it is hard to judge whether the darknet will be able to retain this global database in the long term, but it seems seems clear that legal setbacks to global-index peer-to-peer will continue to be severe. However, should Gnutella-style systems become unviable as darknets, systems, such as Freenet or Mnemosyne might take their place. Peer-to-peer networking and file sharing does seem to be entering into the mainstream both for illegal and legal uses. If we couple this with the rapid build-out of consumer broadband, the dropping price of storage, and the fact that personal computers are effectively establishing themselves as centers of home-entertainment, we suspect that peer-to-peer functionality will remain popular and become more widespread. 2.5 Small Worlds Networks Revisited In this section we try to predict the evolution of the darknet should global peer-to-peer networks be effectively stopped by legal means. The globally accessible global database is the only infrastructure component of the darknet that can be disabled in this way. The other enabling technologies of the darknet (injection, distribution networks, rendering devices, storage) will not only remain available, but rapidly increase in power, based on general technological advances and the possible incorporation of cryptography. We stress that the networks described in this section (in most cases) provide poorer services than global network, and would only arise in the absence of a global database. In the absence of a global database, small-worlds networks could again become the prevalent form of the darknet. However, these small-worlds will be more powerful than they were in the past. With the widespread availability of cheap CD and DVD readers and writers as well as large hard disks, the bandwidth of the sneaker net has increased dramatically, the cost of object storage has become negligible and object injection tools have become ubiquitous. Furthermore, the internet is available as a distribution mechanism that is adequate for audio for most users, and is becoming increasingly adequate for video and computer programs. In light of strong cryptography, it is hard to imagine how sharing could be observed and prosecuted as long as users do not share with strangers. In concrete terms, students in dorms will establish darknets to share content in their social group. These darknets may be based on simple file sharing, DVD-copying, or may use special application programs or servers: for example, a chat or instant-messenger client enhanced to share content with members of your buddy-list. Each student will be a member of other darknets: for example, their family, various special interest groups, friends from high-school, and colleagues in part-time jobs (Fig. 3). If there are a few active super-peers users that locate and share objects with zeal then we can anticipate that content will rapidly diffuse between darknets, and relatively small darknets arranged around social groups will approach the aggregate libraries that are provided by the global darknets of today. Since the legal exposure of such sharing is quite limited, we believe that sharing amongst socially oriented groups will increase unabated. Small-worlds networks suffer somewhat from the lack of a global database; each user can only see the objects stored by his small world neighbors. This raises a number of interesting questions about the network structure and object flow: What graph structure will the network have? For example, will it be connected? What will be the average distance between two nodes? Given a graph structure, how will objects propagate through the graph? In particular, what fraction of objects will be available at a given node? How long does it take for objects to propagate (diffuse) through the network? Questions of this type have been studied in different contexts in a variety of fields (mathematics, computer science, economics, and physics). A number of empirical studies seek to establish structural properties of different types of small world networks, such as social networks [20] and the world-wide web [3]. These works conclude that the diameter of the examined networks is small, and observe further structural properties, such as a power law of the degree distribution [5], A number of authors seek to model these networks by means of random graphs, in order to perform more detailed mathematical analysis on the models [2],[8],[21],[22] and, in particular, study the possibility of efficient search under different random graph distributions [18],[19]. We will present a quantitative study of the structure and dynamics of small-worlds networks in an upcoming paper, but to summarize, small-worlds darknets can be extremely efficient for popular titles: very few peers are needed to satis fy requests for top-20 books, songs, movies or computer programs. If darknets are interconnected, we expect the effective introduction rate to be large. Finally, if darknet clients are enhanced to actively seek out new popular content, as opposed to the user-demand based schemes of today, small-worlds darknets will be very efficient. 3 Introducing Content into the Darknet Our analysis and intuition have led us to believe that efficient darknets in global or small-worlds form will remain a fact of life. In this section we examine rights-management technologies that are being deployed to limit the introduction rate or decrease the rate of diffusion of content into the darknet. 3.1 Conditional Access Systems A conditional-access system is a simple form of rights-management system in which subscribers are given access to objects based (typically) on a service contract. Digital rights management systems often perform the same function, but typically impose restrictions on the use of objects after unlocking. Conditional access systems such as cable, satellite TV, and satellite radio offer little or no protection against objects being introduced into the darknet from subscribing hosts. A conditional-access system customer has no access to channels or titles to which they are not entitled, and has essentially free use of channels that he has subscribed or paid for. This means that an investment of ~$100 (at time of writing) on an analog video-capture card is sufficient to obtain and share TV programs and movies. Some CA systems provide post-unlock protections but they are generally cheap and easy to circumvent. Thus, conditional access systems provide a widely deployed, high-bandwidth source of video material for the darknet. In practice, the large size and low cost of CA-provided video content will limit the exploitation of the darknet for distributing video in the near-term. The same can not be said of the use of the darknet to distribute conditional-access system broadcast keys. At some level, each head-end (satellite or cable TV head-end) uses an encryption key that must be made available to each customer (it is a broadcast), and in the case of a satellite system this could be millions of homes. CA-system providers take measures to limit the usefulness of exploited session keys (for example, they are changed every few seconds), but if darknet latencies are low, or if encrypted broadcast data is cached, then the darknet could threaten CA-system revenues. We observe that the exposure of the conditional access provider to losses due to piracy is proportional to the number of customers that share a session key. In this regard, cable-operators are in a safer position than satellite operators because a cable operator can narrowcast more cheaply. 3.2 DRM Systems A classical-DRM system is one in which a client obtains content in protected (typically encrypted) form, with a license that specifies the uses to which the content may be put. Examples of licensing terms that are being explored by the industry are play on these three hosts, play once, use computer program for one hour, etc. The license and the wrapped content are presented to the DRM system whose responsibility is to ensure that: The client cannot remove the encryption from the file and send it to a peer, The client cannot clone its DRM system to make it run on another host, The client obeys the rules set out in the DRM license, and, The client cannot separate the rules from the payload. Advanced DRM systems may go further. Some such technologies have been commercially very successful the content scrambling system used in DVDs, and (broadly interpreted) the protection schemes used by conditional access system providers fall into this category, as do newer DRM systems that use the internet as a distribution channel and computers as rendering devices. These technologies are appealing because they promote the establishment of new businesses, and can reduce distribution costs. If costs and licensing terms are appealing to producers and consumers, then the vendor thrives. If the licensing terms are unappealing or inconvenient, the costs are too high, or competing systems exist, then the business will fail. The DivX DVD rental model failed on most or all of these metrics, but CSS-protected DVDs succeeded beyond the wildest expectations of the industry. On personal computers, current DRM systems are software-only systems using a variety of tricks to make them hard to subvert. DRM enabled consumer electronics devices are also beginning to emerge. In the absence of the darknet, the goal of such systems is to have comparable security to competing distribution systems notably the CD and DVD so that programmable computers can play an increasing role in home entertainment. We will speculate whether these strategies will be successful in the Sect. 5. DRM systems strive to be BOBE (break-once, break everywhere)-resistant. That is, suppliers anticipate (and the assumptions of the darknet predict) that individual instances (clients) of all security-systems, whether based on hardware or software, will be subverted. If a client of a system is subverted, then all content protected by that DRM client can be unprotected. If the break can be applied to any other DRM client of that class so that all of those users can break their systems, then the DRM-scheme is BOBE-weak. If, on the other hand, knowledge gained breaking one client cannot be applied elsewhere, then the DRM system is BOBE-strong. Most commercial DRM-systems have BOBE-exploits, and we note that the darknet applies to DRM-hacks as well. The CSS system is an exemplary BOBE-weak system. The knowledge and code that comprised the De-CSS exploit spread uncontrolled around the world on web-sites, newsgroups, and even T-shirts, in spite of the fact that, in principle, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act makes it a crime to develop these exploits. A final characteristic of existing DRM-systems is renewability. Vendors recognize the possibility of exploits, and build systems that can be field-updated. It is hard to quantify the effectiveness of DRM-systems for restricting the introduction of content into the darknet from experience with existing systems. Existing DRM-systems typically provide protection for months to years; however, the content available to such systems has to date been of minimal interest, and the content that is protected is also available in unprotected form. The one system that was protecting valuable content (DVD video) was broken very soon after compression technology and increased storage capacities and bandwidth enabled the darknet to carry video content. 3.3 Software The DRM-systems described above can be used to provide protection for software, in addition other objects (e.g. audio and video). Alternatively, copy protection systems for computer programs may embed the copy protection code in the software itself. The most important copy-protection primitive for computer programs is for the software to be bound to a host in such a way that the program will not work on an unlicensed machine. Binding requires a machine ID: this can be a unique number on a machine (e.g. a network card MAC address), or can be provided by an external dongle. For such schemes to be strong, two things must be true. First, the machine ID must not be virtualizable. For instance, if it is trivial to modify a NIC driver to return an invalid MAC address, then the software-host binding is easily broken. Second, the code that performs the binding checks must not be easy to patch. A variety of technologies that revolve around software tamper-re

Effect of Urban Settings on Population Health

Effect of Urban Settings on Population Health Policies of Urban Planning that Influence Built Environment Urban settings have a direct impact on the health of the people who live there. Our lifestyles, living standards, health and social behaviours had a significant changes as a result of urbanization. Ratio of people living as drastically changes as before ten year three out of ten are living in cities but in future approx 2050 ,seven out of ten will be living in cities(10). Urban area provide great opportunities for individuals and families to prosper and opportunity with enhanced access to services, culture and recreation that provides a health living environment, because of this favourable aspects people are attracted by urban cities as started living there. But with this favourable condition there are health risk too for people living in cities as big city lights, bustling market places skyscrapers. Many new health challenges and health hazards rises to the denizen of city. In developing world ,environmental factors are the main cause of compelling burden in terms of the of mortality and morbidity. Since a healthy environment is a prerequisite for a healthy population, a combine and broad approach to health and environment is required to protect both the environment and public health. In recent years mortality reduction Progress has although accelerated uneven improvement and large variations in health status persist both between and within countries. As Environment is linked with most of the Millennium Development Goals. But by year 2015 MDGs will be difficult to achieve without proper attention being paid to the environmental risk factors and its management. Policies related to built environment in Developed countries For shaping our lifestyle and environment policy is a effectual tool. In Public health domain researchers are made particularly in the areas how policy changes and to increase physical activity by large scale investments are made in transportation groundwork. Decisive factor in how people get to work is built environment. For active commute, to make easier for people protected bike lanes, sidewalks and availability of bike storage. Similarly physical activity increases by access to public transportation, since it gives people a chance to walk to and from a bus stop . local trains and metro station. Land-Use Policies During the last half of the 20th century and the early part of the 21st century In the U.S., for highway development the direct subsidies and federal housing loans are two major policy decisions that fuelled the rise of sprawling suburban developments. Nonetheless, local cities and towns can enact policies for land-use, such as building codes and zoning regulations and to support physical activity create community-wide environments. Access to Public Transportation Public transportation may help sluggish individuals to travel their workplaces in daily routine ,as it is cost effective especially for people low-income and minority groups, and good for daily physical activity. For disease control and prevention it is recommend for communities to improve access to public transport, this may encourage people to use it. Bike and Pedestrian-Friendly Street Designs and Policies In the Netherlands, by contrast, trips are made by bike are 27 percent .While U.S. people are making more trips by walking .inn 2009 it is approx 10.5 percent of all trips. In Europe umber of policies has been proposed based on successful support of active transport. This policies focuses on making streets safer for walking and biking: minimize speed limits, more time for longer pedestrian crossing, voluminous sidewalks, planting should be done to calm traffic in the roadways, city zones should be auto-free and protected, dedicated lanes for bike are few approaches. Some Other options include offering incentives for not using cars. In early 2000s London made broad bike path, bike parking, and development of traffic safety and congestion pricing .In 2003 drivers have to pay fine to enter in city. From 2000 to 2008 these changes have been accompanied by a doubling in bicycle trips and a 12 percent reduction in serious cycling injuries. In the U.S., to make roads safer for drivers, pedestrians and cyclist a list of policies are made by the National Complete Streets Coalition for local, state, and federal governments. Our surroundings and the policies that shape them have a substantial impact on where, when, how, and how much physical activity we get on a daily basis. Obesity epidemic is caused by lack of physical activity, friendly environments is one way to help turn around the epidemic. Buildings ,roads, communities are many elements to an activity-friendly environment encourage walking and biking; there are some plentiful and appealing places as parks, garden and playground (2). The city has in fact become a key focus for promoting sustainable development policy within UK. ( which city.) Make greater use of integrated urban development policy approaches (by creating and ensuring high-quality public spaces, modernising infrastructure networks and improving energy efficiency, proactive innovation and educational policies. Pay special attention to deprived neighbourhoods within the context of the city as a whole (by pursuing strategies to upgrade the physical environment, strengthen the local economy and local labour market policy, instigate proactive education and training policies, and promote efficient and affordable urban transport. For example, By 2050 Vancouver city in Canada developed a plan to be the world’s greenest city and has approach to determined action plan to achieve its target with the competition with London, New York, San Francisco, Sydney and Stockholm such cities. By 2020 majority of people travels through public transport, cycling and walking. By 2020,0 % waste so that solid waste per capita going to dumping ground or cinerarium is reduced by 40%. BY 2020 Easy access to nature and green spaces with everyone living within a 5 minute walk of such space which will also see the planting of 150, 000 more trees. Human Health By 2020 taking pleasure of the best drinking water of any prime city in the world by meeting/beating national and international standards and 33% reducing per capita consumption. By 2020 WHO target access to the cleanest air of any major world city by meeting/beating. Policies related to built environment in Developing countries The built environment in many developing countries is fast decaying. The factors responsible can be traced to rapid urbanization, rural- urban migration, steady economic downturn, decay of urban infrastructure, and poor quality of original construction, lack of integrated planning, negligent urban housekeeping, and preservation of historic value, disaster and war. This problem is more felt in Africa and Asia where half of the population are either homeless or living in houses which are dangerous to health and an affront to human dignity. Nearly 80.0% of the urban population lives in slums and squatter settlements without adequate water, lighting, sanitation and waste disposal (World Bank, 2005) Following are some of the policy suggestions in developing countries The first to be considered is the need for quality housing and hygienic environment. To achieve this, extensive redevelopment and upgrading programmes through the provision of urban basic services are essential in the area priority should be given to provision of portable water disposal facilities, and proper maintenance of drainages. Sanitary inspections should be regularly carried out on provision of household facilities with the enforcement of environmental sanitary laws. Adequate funding should be given to Waste Management Authority for effective service as well as improved health facilities in the Area. Generally, poverty tends to breed poor environmental and unhygienic conditions that have great impact on human health. This is because poor cannot afford for the facility for a healthy living, most especially, quality housing thus they become vulnerable to health risks. To avoid this situation and assure good environmental standard, public enlightenment and environmental educatio n would be necessary to keep the people well informed about the importance of healthy and hygienic environment. There is only one choice to make and that is preservation and proper management of our environment in such a way that it can be useful for the future generation. As we know health is wealth. The most promising area where the greatest impact can be made in combating the disease burden in our environments and ensure a stable healthier and longer lifespan for people surely lies on investment in environmental sanitation, good housing condition and sound health. Adequate plans should be made therefore to involve stakeholders, individuals and governments (local, state and federal) to redeeming the image of deplorable parts of our cities and rescue the lives of the poor residents.(3)

The Cultural Significance of The Tale of Genji Essay -- Japan Culture

The Cultural Significance of The Tale of Genji The Tale of Genji is one of the most important stories of ancient Japanese literature. Japanese scholar Sin Ohno said that there is no literature written during the Heian Era which is written in as precise language as The Tale of Genji. The author, Murasaki Shikibu, is a woman. In this tale, we can see the concept towards marriage of women during her period. During the Nara Era, and some time before, the concept of marriage was totally different from the concept we know today. It is called "Tsuma Toi Kon." "Tsuma" means wife; "Toi" means to visit; "Kon" means marriage. In order to explain the marriage during this era, I will present an example of the typical interactions between men and women. When a man meets woman, somewhere like market where many people gather, the man would ask her address and name if he is interested in her. Asking for the name also avoids misunderstanding; asking for the address is so he can visit her. Visiting her is like marriage in today's sense. If the woman is interested in the man, she would tell her address and name. The man would visit the woman's house in the evening and call her name from outside. He might play a musical instrument like a flute, or harp, or sing songs to get her attention. Men sometimes visited women without calling or playing any music. Whether the woman accepts the man is up to the woman to decide. If the woman is interested, she would invite him in. Men and women generally worked during the day time; the men visited women only at night time. In earlier eras, the family built a sub-house beside the main house and invited the men into the sub-house. However, the men did not stay in the sub-house. Men visited at night and.. . ...robably tried to create a figure who had ability to support several different women. Even though what Genji did was allowed in ancient society, it is definitely not acceptable today. In The Tale of Genji a man would sometimes play a harp or a flute to get a woman's attention. Considering the appearance of traditional marriage, those men are following the traditional ways of marriage. Marriage during the Heian Era is a little different from the Nara Era. They still pracitced what was still recognized as "visiting marriage," but the family formally accepted the man as groom. However, men still stopped visiting when they lost interest in the women. This is like Hikaru Genji, who did not like Lady Aoi very much, so he seldom visited her. "Visiting marriage" had many problems. In some cases, men visited several different women at a time. There were laws to restrict the m

The Zone Diet Essay example -- Weight Loss Nutrition Papers

The Zone Diet High-protein/ low-carbohydrate diets are nothing new to Americans these days; they seem overwhelmingly to be the most popular among those people trying to lose weight. Ph.D. Dr. Barry Sears’ books on his version of the high-protein diet, the Zone Diet, are among the best selling diet books on the market. The diet seems to be yielding quick and noticeable results to those who follow Dr. Sears’ plan. Many people are desperate to lose weight and have tried numerous methods that have not produced sufficient and long lasting results. This could perhaps be the reason for the recent craze for the high-protein/ low-carbohydrate diet- it really does cause weight loss. Even Hollywood movie stars such as actresses Jennifer Anniston and Sandra Bullock attribute their recent weight loss and improvement in appearance to the Zone diet. However, in the midst of all of the hype, we must examine the claims and assess the degree to which this diet is indeed effective. Further, considering that Dr. Sears’ advice contradicts what we have been told for years about dieting, we must determine if it is healthy. Could we have been misinformed when given advice to eat a diet rich in carbohydrates, or is this diet another that falls short of what it promises? THE ZONE AND IT’S PURPOSE Dr. Barry Sears, Ph.D., is responsible for the development of The Zone nutrition concept, which is based upon 15 years of his research in the field of bio-nutrition. It was guided by the same science that won the 1982 Nobel Prize for Medicine dealing with the research of eicosanoids. The term "Zone" is an expression used by athletes to describe a near-euphoric state of maximum physical, mental and psychological performance (http://www.nutrition... ...igh meat diets and cancer risk." The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 58(2):243-8, May 1999. Holm, L et.al. "Randomized trial on protein vs carbohydrate in ad libitum fat reduced diet for the treatment of obesity." International Journal of Obesity. 23(5):528-36, May 1999. Katan, MB. "High-oil compared to low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets in the prevention of ischemic heart disease." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 66:974-979, Oct. 1997 Miller, SI and Wolfe, RR. "Physical exercise as a modulator of adaptation to low and high carbohydrate and low and high fat intakes." European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 53:112-9, Apr. 1999 Panhuysen, G. et.al. "Does carbohydrate-rich, protein-poor food prevent a deterioration of mood and cognitive performance of stress-prone subjects when subjected to a stressful task?" Appetite. (1):49-65, Aug. 1998.

How Far Does Luck Explain the Rise and Fall of Napoleon Bonaparte Essay

How far does luck explain the rise and fall of Napoleon Bonaparte? Napoleon Bonaparte like many others rose to prominence during the turbulent times of the French revolution- he was therefore lucky to have been born at such a time in to justify his advancing position. However his reputation as a skilled tactician and strategist enabled him to initially capitalize on the reforms of the French Revolution to improve the lives of French citizens. Napoleon Bonaparte emerged as an important figure for re-establishing order in France and initially gained the trust and support of his countrymen, winning many great military victories against the nations of Europe. But over time, Napoleon’s lust for power overcame his good economic, political and military accomplishments, and his transformation into a selfish dictator led to his fall. To say he was unlucky at this point is an understatement. Napoleon’s upbringing is one that could be considered unconventional (at first) for a successful ruler of France. Napoleon was the son of a middle class Corsican family, at a time when Corsica had not even been French for long. Being formerly subject to Genoa, the Corsican people did not speak French but a dialect of Italian. They were, and are, a fiercely independent Mediterranean people, with a Mediterranean temperament. Napoleon was always self-conscious about his humble origins and provincial background. He came from a mediocre family and went to a mediocre military academy, where his schoolmates made fun of his thick Corsican accent. Despite this however he was lucky in a sense that his noble background afforded him more opportunities than were available to a normal Corsican at the time. In January 1779, Napoleon was enrolled at a religious school in Autun, mainland France, to learn French. In May he was admitted to a military academy at Brienne-le-Chateau. He excelled in various subjects including mathematics and was viewed by one examiner as a candidate for an â€Å"excellent sailor†. Napoleon was the first Corsican to graduate from the Ecole Militaire, a testament to his intellectual abilities in the field. Of course his application to maths determined his specialisation as an artillery officer. This can be considered a stroke of luck in his favour, – one of many that he benefited from – inasmuch as the artillery was the most prestigious branch of the army under the old regime. But the biggest stroke of luck Napoleon had was to be born when he was – in the age of the French Revolution. Napoleon, like many others, was made by the Revolution. The Revolution turned the whole world upside down and presented an ambitious young man (he was always ambitious – a consequence of his resentment at his inferior status) with new and vast opportunities. Looking again at the perspective of Napoleon’s capabilities as a man rather than his luck during his ascension we must also consider his fluidity. Despite his early one sidedness and his view of himself as a devout Corsican, he was ostracized by his countrymen when trying to attempt to instil himself as the head of the Corsican national government. The Corsican nationalists were inclined to reactionary and monarchist ideas and distrustful of the ideals of the Revolution. They were also distrustful of Napoleon, who had the misfortune of being seen as a Corsican provincial to the French and a French interloper to the Corsicans. Rejected by his compatriots, Napoleon abandoned all his nationalist ideals. He later became transformed from an ardent Corsican patriot to a fervent advocate of French centralism. In a sense it was luck that Napoleon now saw France as an area would he could advance to power, but there nothing surprising about this sudden turnabout. Napoleon never had any fixed principles about anything, except his own advancement. His early Republican sympathies may have been genuine but they were certainly tempered with a heavy dose of opportunism. He specialised in currying favour with his superiors in order to climb the ladder of careerist advancement. When it was advantageous to appear as a Jacobin, he donned the tricolour, but later he swung against the Jacobins with equal alacrity when their star waned. Napoleon’s big opportunity came in 1794 at the siege of Toulon. This key Mediterranean port had declared for the English and allowed British forces to occupy it. England was the real bulwark of reaction and bankrolled the wars against revolutionary France that others fought. Napoleon saw his chance to make a mark and did so by conspicuous bravery and a high degree of skill in the use of artillery, which decided the battle in France’s favour. His rapid rise to fame and success had begun. His next big military success came with the invasion of Italy in the strategic campaign against Austria. It was at this point Napoleon demonstrated excellent qualities as a tactician and a politician. Napoleon vetoed the idea of the Directory atheists to march on Rome and dethrone the Pope as he reasoned this would create a power vacuum which would be exploited by the Kingdom of Naples. Instead, in March 1797, Bonaparte led his army into Austria and forced it to negotiate peace. The resulting Treaty of Leoben gave France control of most of northern Italy and the Low Countries, and a secret clause promised the Republic of Venice to Austria. Bonaparte marched on Venice and forced its surrender, ending 1,100 years of independence; he also authorised the French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark. His application of conventional military ideas to real-world situations effected his military triumphs, such as creative use of artillery as a mobile force to support his infantry. He referred to his tactics thus: â€Å"I have fought sixty battles and I have learned nothing which I did not know at the beginning. Look at Caesar; he fought the first like the last. † His decision to record his exploits through two newspapers he founded for the army and circulation in France earned him wide critical acclaim. But again he was known to sacrifice military glory in favour of preserving his position, as shown by negotiations in Austria and the treaty of Campio Formio in response to Barras and the French republican allies in control of the French government becoming dependent on Bonaparte following the Coup of 18 Fructidor in order to depose the French royalists who feared Napoleon was becoming a dictator. It was not unlucky that this happened, as Napoleon handled the situation effectively and was able to continue his quest for power. His capacity as a strategist in military campaign against nations hostile to France continued to shine when he conceived an expedition into Egypt in order to seize it and thereby undermine Britain’s access to it’s trade interests in India. Although this invasion failed, mostly due to his loss in the battle of the Nile against Horatio Nelson, Napoleon- unlike his later years was able to take defeat well, speeding up the retreat by poisoning plague stricken men- this supposed act of fratricide was deemed necessary by his supporters given the continued harassment of stragglers by Ottoman forces, and indeed those left behind alive were tortured and beheaded by the Ottomans. Back in Egypt, on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir. The coup of Brumaire in 1799 while being the main event for Napoleon’s ascension to ruler of France largely defines how far his luck went in his rise to power. The reasons for General Bonaparte’s coup may have lain more in his defeats than by his victories. In November 1799, France was suffering the effects of military reverses brought on by Bonaparte’s adventurism in theMiddle East. The looming threat of opportunistic invasion by the Second Coalition had provoked internal unrest, with Bonaparte stuck in Egypt. When he returned he stormed into the chambers escorted by grenadiers. At this point his ineptitude at speechmaking failed to impressed the dissolutioned directory, and he was heckled out and even assaulted at the council of Five Hundred. It was only by the intervention of his brother Lucien that he was spared great injury or death, and lucien’s skill at organising the troops to expel the violent deputies from the chamber shouting â€Å"kick ‘em all out! † and dispersing the council. This spelled the end of the directory and the establishment of the consulate. Napoleon had hoped that the his French empire would last for centuries, but the reality was much more disconcerting. His downfall however was not so much attributed to bad luck as it was his ego and complacency due to his earlier military successes. Two main things contributed to his downfall, Economics and Military failure. In the Treaty of Tilset, Napoleon established the continental system which basically was a boycott of selling and buying of goods with the British. He realized that England depended heavily on other countries to buy from and sell to. However Napoleon underestimated the fact that England could trade with the U.  S and controlled India (even though he tried to stop British Trade with India in his invasion of Egypt) and was not limited to Prussia, Russia and Austria. The continental system did not hurt England as much as he had hoped, but it hurt other countries because they loved English goods and got them any way they could. This was also just another reason for the Austrians, Prussians and Russians to rebel against him. Napoleon tended to try and get his way in negotiations by shouting at those who didn’t agree with him, and on one occasion physically assaulted an Austrian diplomat who disagreed with his demands. Napoleon believed military dominance was sufficient to impose his will on Europe, but this necessitated constantly keeping a large army in the field, which strained French finances and alienated the ordinary population of Europe, as French troops lived off the country when campaigning or stationed abroad. His failure to compromise through diplomacy after military victories meant he was never able to consolidate his gains long term and confirm them through any prolonged period of subsequent peace. Napoleon was never accepted as ‘one of them’ by other European rulers. His practice of dethroning monarchs and replacing them with members of his own family, who had no right to them and who were certainly no better as rulers, scared all other European monarchs, who were afraid they might be next. Napoleon didn’t really understand seapower, nor its importance and how to use it effectively. The French navy got few resources-manpower and money being directed mainly to the army. This left the French fleet underequipped, undermanned, and undertrained, which led to a drop in morale and its easy defeat in battle. No attempt was made to rebuild the French fleet after Trafalgar, global naval supremacy being left wholly in British hands. Napoleon didn’t realize that this would have long term economic effects as well as military ones. In the Treaty of Tilset, Napoleon established the continental system which basically was a boycott of selling and buying of goods with the British. He realized that England depended heavily on other countries to buy from and sell to. However Napoleon in a moment of political ineptitude underestimated that though was that England could trade with the U.  S and and controlled India (even though he tried to stop British Trade with India in his invasion of Egypt) and was not limited to Prussia, Russia and Austria. The continental system did not hurt England as much as he had hoped, but it hurt other countries because they loved English goods and got them any way they could. This was also just another reason for the Austrians, Prussians and Russians to rebel against him. Instead of crippling the British economy, it crippled that of much of Europe. Britain had responded with Orders in Council, a close blockade of Europe’s major ports that cut off all foreign seaborne trade to continental Europe. This impoverished many people, denied Europe’s aristocracy luxury goods, and led to endemic smuggling that undermined the economy of France and other European states. When Napoleon created the Continental System, Portugal refused to comply with a treaty that would severely weaken its trade. Promptly, the French marched in with their armies and overran Spain and Portugal. The Spanish people feared that the Catholic Church would be thrown aside by the French, causing unrest. In addition, Napoleon further humiliated the Spanish by deposing their king, to whom the Spaniards were loyal, instead putting his brother on the throne. This was the spark that would set off the true Peninsular War with constant guerrilla warfare that would end with Napoleon losing 300,000 troops by 1813, after 5 years of fighting. Harsh treatment of the population, in particular atrocities committed by French troops against any resistance by the peasantry, led to a opular Spanish uprising against French occupation forces in 1808. A British army sent to Portugal invaded Spain in support of the uprising,and its operations in conjunction with Spanish guerrillas caused the so called â€Å"Spanish ulcer† which diverted troops and resources away from Napoleon’s main army and forced France into a war on 2 fronts. But possibly the greatest blunder of Napoleon was his decision to invade Russia. Under pressure from important nobles who were losing money, the Tzar withdrew from the Continental System. Napoleon determined to invade Russia in 1812 so as to force Russia back in. ossibly due to his inflated ego in becoming the superior leader and incessant wanting of more land, he was convinced that Moscow was the heart of Russia and was determined to march there directly and take control. Napoleon was overconfident in that he allowed himself only nine weeks to defeat Russia and return to Italy and so did not provide cold weather gear for his soldiers nor frost nails for his horses. At the point of his expedition he was initially unlucky that the Russian army did not decide to fight face to face, although their initial retreat and the Russian Autumn inticed Napoleon too much, and he was lured deeper into Russia. The Russians instead implemented a scorched earth policy, destroying and burning anything worthy of supply and nourishment for Napoleon’s men, stretching the French emperor’s supply lines still further and demoralising his army. When the French and Russians finally met head on at the Battle of Borodino on 7 September, it was the largest and bloodiest single-day action of the Napoleonic Wars; it involved more than 250,000 soldiers and resulted in at least 70,000 casualties. The French captured the battlefield, but failed to destroy the Russian army. Moreover, the French could not replace their losses whereas the Russians could replace theirs. Napoleon was caught out by the Russian tactics, but could not adapt to them effectively due to his overreliance on previous tried and tested techniques, thinking he could still win the war on his standard strategy, he was badly wrong. Napoleon entered Moscow on September 14, after the Russian Army had again retreated. But by then the Russians had largely evacuated the city and even released criminals from the prisons to inconvenience the French; furthermore, the governor, Count Fyodor Rostopchin, ordered the city to be burnt. Alexander I refused to capitulate and the peace talks that Napoleon initiated failed. In October, with no clear sign of victory in sight, Napoleon began his disastrous Great Retreat from Moscow, during the usual autumn Russian mud season. Napoleon at this point found himself amongst a disorganised militant force that could only retreat via a single route easily blocked by the Russian army thanks to inadequate maps and intelligence gathered on the Russian geography and Topography: the aforementioned mud made the retreat slow and bloody, with better clothed Cossack troops able to strike with impunity against the confused French army. In the following weeks, the Grande Armee underwent catastrophic blows from the onset of the Russian Winter, the lack of supplies and constant guerilla warfare by Russian peasants and irregular troops. When the remnants of Napoleon’s army crossed the Berezina River in November, only 27,000 fit soldiers remained; the Grand Armee had lost some 380,000 men dead and 100,000 captured. Napoleon then abandoned his men and returned to Paris to protect his position as Emperor and to prepare to resist the advancing Russians. This disaster encouraged the formation of the Sixth Coalition, Prussia and Austria quickly joining Russia and Britain in arms against Napoleon. The strain of fighting a multi front war became apparent to him The Peninsular War (known to the French as the Spanish ulcer) combined with the Russian disaster of 1812 to weaken him so much that he was exiled, for the first time. When he returned in the Hundred Days, Napoleon’s downfall was that he did have so much power. He promised peace to the other European Powers if they let him have the throne. However, no-one could bear to see the man who once ruled most of Europe in power again, so it was off to war. This conflict led to Waterloo, and his final exile. In conclusion it was a combination of luck based on skill and merit that allowed Napoleon to ascend to power from such a foreign position leading the French to establish great military successes In his early years. The great French military leader Napoleon Bonaparte had initially capitalized on the reforms of the French Revolution to improve the lives of French citizens. However his focus on conquering Europe had eventually overridden his economic and military accomplishments. His previous successes exacerbated his ego to the point at which he became complacent with his standard tactics both on the battlefield and in the council. A sequence of poor diplomacy and belief that he could hold the European countries together by sheer force led to European countries rising in vengeance, such as the Spanish ulcer. Napoleon’s failure o deal with these threats and subsequent failing to enforce the ill fated continental system meant his empire was being dismantled piece by piece. Another reason for his downfall was his war tactic of constant Napoleonic Warfare. His main goal was to completely destroy the enemies army to the point where they no longer had the men to fight. But, this also caused heavy causualities on his side. Also, during his Invasion of Russia, he was hurt by the infamous Russian winters. When he retreated from Russia, almost all of his men got left behind (along with Michael Ney) and were completely annihilated by the enemy forces. After this, he suffered because of his army, or lack thereof. The resultant strain of fighting a multi front war against the united European forces was more failure of effective leadership than simple bad luck. Although he successfully returned from exile in the Hundred Days, his military defeat at Waterloo was the final nail in his coffin.